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Chapter 32

The Ottoman Empire in Decline

- The Nature of Decline

A. Military Decline

• Ottoman Empire lost a lot of battles, lost miserable to Austria and Russia
• The Ottoman Empire was behind in army strategy, weaponry, tactics, and training compared to European forces
• Janissary forces were the Ottomans army but 17th to 18th century became powerful political force
• Janissaries didn't want to advance in weapon technology.
• The military declined because the Janissaries neglected military trainig, advancing in weapon technology and became less disciplined
• became vulnerable to their neighbors
• Loss of military power meant loss of central government control
• Empire lost power to its provinces because their semi- independent governors had created their own army to support the sultan in Istanbul in return for autonomy ( independence)
• The rulers of the provinces were focused on their own interests and when collecting taxes, they would only send a little to the imperial treasury, and deprived the central state of revenue

B. Territorial Losses

• Maintained power in Anatolia and Iraq
• Russia took over Caucasus and in central Asia
• Austria nibbled away at the western frontiers
• Balkan provinces, Notably Greece (1830), and Serbia (1867) declared and got independence from the Ottoman empire
• Most significant loss was to Egypt
• 1798 Napolean invaded egypt hoping to use it for and attack the British empire in India
• He failed and had to return to France where he proceeded to over throw the directory
• the invasion sparked turmoil in Egypt and they wanted their own independence

• Muhammad Ali was the most successful with helping gain independence in Egypt
• he ruled from 1805-1848
• he drafted peasants to serve as infrantry
• hired French and Italian forces to train his troops
• Launched a program of industrialization focusing on cotton and textiles
• he remained subordinate to the Ottoman sultan, by 1820 he has established himself as the effective ruler of Egypt
• he then invaded Syria, and Anatolia threatening to capture Istanbul and topple the Ottoman state
• Ottoman empire survived because the British empire intervened fearing if a collapse occured Russia would expand

• Economic ills aggravated the military and political problems of the Ottoman state
• trade declined
• Europe was main source but then traded with counter parts in India and China
• by 18th century Europes trade focus had shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin, where the Ottomans had no Presence at all
• Europeans textiles and manufactured goods started to flow into the Ottoman empire

C. Economic Difficulties

• the European merchandise was high quality and inexpensive it put pressure on the Ottoman artisans and craftsman who often held riots to protest foreign imports
• Ottoman exports consisted largely of raw materials such as grain, raw cotton, hemp, indigo, and opium but they didnt offset the value of imported European manufactures
• Slowly the Ottoman empire moved toward the fiscal insolvency and financial dependency
• after 19th century the Ottoman's economic developments depended heavily on foreign debts
• European capital financed the construction of railroads, utilities and mining enterprises
• Interest payments grew to the point where it consumed more than half of the Ottoman's revenues
• in 1822 the Ottoman state was unable to pay interest on their loans and had no choice but to accept foreign administration of its debts

D. The Capitulations

• Capitulations: agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality -the right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens according to their own laws.
• Nothing symbolized foreign influence than capitulations
• Ottoman empire signed it in the 16th century so they wouldn't have to deal with the burden of administering justice for communities of foreing merchants
• by the 19th century they found capitulations as humiliating intrusions on their sovereignty
• Capitulations also served as instruments of economic penetration by European business people who established tax-exempt banks and commercial enterprises in the Ottoman empire, and they permitted foreign governments to levy duties on goods sold in Ottoman ports
• early 20th century the Ottoman lacked the resources to maintain its costly bureaucracy
• less money to pay the palace employees, military, and the religious hierarchy so tried to increase taxation
• led to more exploitation of peasantry and a decline in agricultural production

Reform and Reorganization

A. The reforms of Mahmud II

• He became sultan after the revolt
• when Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; cleared the way for reforms
• he built a European-style army, academies, schools, roads, and telegraph

B. Legal and Educational Reform (Tanzimat era)

• Ruling class sought restructuring to strengthen the state
• Broad legal reforms, modeled after Napoleon's civic code
• State reform of education(1846), free and compulsory primary education(1869)
• Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority

C. Opposition to the Tanzimat

• religious conservatives were critical of the attack on Islamic law and tradition
• legal equality for minorities was resented by some, even a few minority leaders
• young ottomans wanted more reform
  • freedom, autonomy, decentralization
• high level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power

Russian Empire under pressure:

• The keystone to reform efforts was the emancipation of the serfs
• Reform paved the way for government sponsored industrialization and transformed Russian society
• Political liberalization did not accompany social and economic reform, because tsars reused to give up autocratic power
  • Oppressive political environment sparked opposition movements that turned radical in the late 19th century.
  • Early 20th century: Discontent reached crisis proportions and started a revolution.

A. Military Defeat and Social Reform:

• 19th century tsars ruled multiethnic, multilingual, and multicultural empire- from Poland to the Pacific Ocean
  • Only about half of the population spoke Russian or viewed the Russian Orthodox faith.
  • Tsars ruled through an autocratic regime in which all initiative came from the central administration
  • Tsars enjoyed support of Russian Orthodox church and powerful class of nobles who owned most of land and were exempt from taxes and military duty
  • Peasants made up most of population and most were serfs who were bound to the lands that they cultivated. This was almost as bad as slavery.

B. The Crimean War

• Russia was a respected and feared military power.
  • Maintained tradition of conquest and expansion
  • During 19th century, expanded in 3 directions:
    • East to Manchuria
    • South into Caucasus and central Asia
    • Southwest towards Mediterranean
    • Led to interference in the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman empire
  • After defeating Turkish forces in a war (1828-1829) Russia tried to establish a protectorate over the weakening Ottoman empire
  • Threatened to upset balance of power in Europe
    • Led to military conflict between Russia and a coalition (Britain, France, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Ottoman empire) This was the Crimean War.
    • Showed weakness of Russian empire
    • Russian empire could hold its own against the Ottoman empire and the Qing forces, but not against the industrial power of western Europe.
  • September 1854: Allied forces mounted campaign against Sevastopol in Crimean peninsula (headquarters of Russia's Black Sea Fleet) -Russia was defeated
    • Demonstrated weakness of agrarian economy based on unfree labor
    • Military defeat compelled tsarist autocracy to reevaluate Russian social order and undertake a large restructuring program.

C. Emancipation of Serfs

• Opposition of serfdom had grown steadily since 18th century
  • Not just radicals but also high officials
  • Most people believed it had become an obstacle to economic development and a viable state
• Serfdom was a source of rural instability and peasant revolt
  • Hundreds of insurrections broke out during first four decades
• 1861: Tsar abolished institution of serfdom
  • Continued for decades anyway
• Government sought to balance interests of lords and serfs, but in balance, terms of emancipation were unfavorable to most peasants
  • Government compensated landowners for loss of lands and serfs who had worked on it
  • Serfs were freed, had labor obligations eventually cancelled and gained opportunity to become landowners
  • Peasants won few political rights and had to pay a redemption tax for most of the lands they received.
    • Most peasants believed that the rulers forced them to pay for land that was rightfully theirs
  • A few peasants prospered and improved their position as a result of emancipation
  • Most found themselves in debt for the rest of their lives (a source of alienation and radicalization)
• Emancipation resulted in little (if any) increase in agricultural production

D. Political and Legal reform

• Important reforms came in wake of the emancipation of the serfs.
• Government created elected district assemblies (zemstvos- 1864) to deal with local issues of health, education and welfare
  • All classes elected representatives to these assemblies
  • Remained subordinate to Tsarist autocracy
    • The autocracy retained exclusive authority over national issues and landowning nobility (who possessed a large share of votes and seats)
• Legal reform was more fruitful than experimentation with a representative government
  • 1864: Revision of justiciary system
    • Created a system of law courts based on western European models- Independent judges and appellate courts
  • Trial by jury for criminal offences
  • Elected justices of the peace- dealt with minor offences
• Encouraged emergence of attorneys and other legal experts
  • Professional standards contributed to decline of judicial corruption

Industrialization:

• Social and political reform coincided with industrialization in 19th century Russia
• Tsar Alexander II emancipated serfs with the intention of creating a mobile work force for emerging industries
• Tsarist government encouraged industrialization as a way of strengthening the Russian empire
• Although industrialization took place within the framework of capitalism, it differed from western European industrialization
  • Motivation for development was political and military
  • Driving force was the government policy rather than entreprenueurial initiative
• Proceeded slowly at first but surged during the last two decades of the 19th century

A. The Witte System

• Prime mover behind Russian industrialization was Count Sergei Witte (minister of finance from 1892-1903)
  • First budget (1893) outlined aims for "removing the unfavorable conditions which hamper the economic development of the country" and "kindling a healthy spirit of enterprise"
• Implemented policies designed to stimulate economic development
  • Centerpiece of police was a massive program of railway construction
    • Linked faraway bits of Russia
    • Stimulated development of other industries
    • Most important of new lines was the trans-Siberian railway- opened Siberia to large-scale settlement, exploitation, and industrialization
  • To raise domestic capital for industry, he remodeled the state bank and encouraged establishment of a savings bank
    • Supported infant industries with high protective tariffs
      • Also was securing large foreign loans from western Europe to finance industrialization
  • His plan worked
• France and Belgian capital played a key role in developing steel and coal
• British funds supported the booming petroleum industry in the Caucasus